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2013-10-04

Physicists 'entangle' microscopic drum's beat with electrical signals

Oct. 3, 2013 — Extending evidence of quantum behavior farther into the large-scale world of everyday life, physicists at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have "entangled" -- linked the properties of -- a microscopic mechanical drum with electrical signals.

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The results confirm that NIST's micro-drum could be used as a quantum memory in future quantum computers, which would harness the rules of quantum physics to solve important problems that are intractable today. The work also marks the first-ever entanglement of a macroscopic oscillator, expanding the range of practical uses of the drum.

Entanglement is a curious feature of the quantum world once believed to occur only at atomic and smaller scales. In recent years, scientists have been finding it in larger systems. Entanglement has technological uses. For instance, it is essential for quantum computing operations such as correcting errors, and for quantum teleportation of data from one place to another.

The experiments, described Oct. 3, 2013, in Science Express, were performed at JILA, a joint institute of NIST and the University of Colorado Boulder.

NIST introduced the aluminum micro-drum in 2011 and earlier this year suggested it might be able to store data in quantum computers. The drum -- just 15 micrometers in diameter and 100 nanometers thick -- features both mechanical properties (such as vibrations) and quantum properties (such as the ability to store and transfer individual quanta of energy).

The drum is part of an electromechanical circuit that can exchange certain quantum states between the waveform of a microwave pulse and vibration in the drum. In the latest JILA experiment, a microwave signal "cooled" the drum to a very low energy level, just one unit of vibration, in a way analogous to some laser-cooling techniques. Then another signal caused the drum's motion to become entangled with a microwave pulse that emerged spontaneously in the system.

The drum stored the quantum information in the form of vibrational energy for at least 10 microseconds, long enough to be useful in experiments. Then the same type of microwave signal that cooled the drum was used to transfer the state stored in the drum to a second microwave pulse.

Researchers measured the properties of the two microwave pulses -- specific points on the curves of the travelling waves -- and found that the results were strongly correlated over 10,000 repetitions of the experiment. The evidence of quantum entanglement comes from the fact that measuring the first microwave pulse allowed scientists to anticipate the characteristics of the second pulse with greater accuracy than would otherwise be expected. The correlations between the two pulses indicated that the first pulse was entangled with the drum and the second pulse encoded the drum's quantum state.

The results suggest that the drum, in addition to its potential as a quantum memory device, also could be used to generate entanglement in microwaves, to convert one form of quantum information to an otherwise incompatible form, and to sense tiny forces with improved precision.

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2013-10-03

Business IEF2013: Wafer cost to soar after 28nm, says TSMC

2013/10/03

Dismaying the IEF2013 meeting in Dublin this morning was a foil put up by TSMC senior director for R&D, Yee-Chaung See, that showed a steeply rising wafer cost after the 28nm node.

So steep was the anticipated cost curve that the prospective cost of a 10nm wafer appeared to be about 4x the cost of a 28nm wafer.

Asked if this was a show-stopper for the industry, Yee-Chuang replied: “We need msny innovations to bring the cost down.”

The two most important innovations to achieve this are 450mm and EUV.

“Progress towards 250W source power EUV must not slow down,” said Yee-Chuang, adding that he expected to see it by 2015.

However only around 10W is currently being achieved, although Gigaphoton of Japan recently announced a 15W power source.

On the spreading TSMC ecosystem, Yee-Chuang noted that the TSMC ‘grand Alliance’ now spends a cumulative $12 billion on R&D – more than any IDM. Itnel spends abot $10 billion a year on R&D.

Another sign of the growing power of the TSMC ecosystem is that the company currently employs “close to” 1,000 design engineers, said Yee-Chuang.

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Insect repellent: Scientists find insect DEET receptors, develop safe alternatives to DEET

Now researchers at the University of California, Riverside have identified these DEET-detecting olfactory receptors that cause the repellency -- a major breakthrough in the field of olfaction.

Further, the team of researchers has identified three safe compounds that mimic DEET and could one day be used to prevent the transmission of deadly vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, and yellow fever.

Study results appear online Oct. 2 in Nature.

"Until now, no one had a clue about which olfactory receptor insects used to avoid DEET," said Anandasankar Ray, an associate professor of entomology, who led the research team. "Without the receptors, it is impossible to apply modern technology to design new repellents to improve upon DEET."

The method Ray's team used to identify the receptors examined in an unbiased fashion all the sensory neurons in the insect, which was the key to successfully finding them. In their experiments, the researchers used the genetic model system Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) that was genetically engineered in such a way that neurons activated by DEET glowed fluorescent green. The researchers thus found the receptors, called Ir40a receptors, lining the inside of a poorly studied region of the antenna called the sacculus.

Introduced in the 1940s, DEET has remained unchanged for the past 65 years largely because the receptor in insects for DEET was unknown. Capable of dissolving plastics and nylon, DEET has been reported to inhibit an enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) in mammals that is important in the nervous system. DEET is also unaffordable and inconvenient for use in Africa and other parts of the world where hundreds of millions of people suffer from insect-transmitted diseases.

"Our three compounds, which we tested rigorously in the lab, do not dissolve plastics," Ray said. "They are approved by the Food and Drug Administration for consumption as flavors or fragrances, and are already being used as flavoring agents in some foods. But now they can be applied to bed-nets, clothes, curtains -- making them ward off insects."

Using novel chemical informatics strategies, Ray's lab screened half a million compounds against the DEET receptor to identify substitutes. A computer algorithm the team developed identified which compounds are not only predicted to be strong repellents but also found naturally in fruits, plants or animals. The algorithm predicted nearly 200 natural DEET substitutes; of which the researchers tested ten compounds. Of these, eight were strong repellents on flies, of which four were tested in Aedes mosquitoes and found to be strong repellents. Of the four compounds, three are already approved by the Food and Drug Administration as food additives.

"All three compounds activated the same antennal cells in flies as DEET," Ray said. "What's really encouraging is that some of these compounds may be affordable to produce in large quantities. In the future, using this algorithm, we could find chemicals that activate DEET receptors but are substantially different, with far better properties than DEET. We could find truly novel repellants that have remarkable properties such as large spatial protection and long-term protection."

With the help of UC Riverside's Office of Technology Commercialization (OTC), Ray is exploring options for commercializing the technology. OTC has already filed two patents on the research.

"We think there is incredible potential for a start-up company to develop new repellents based on Dr. Ray's current research," said Michael Pazzani, the vice chancellor for research and economic development at UCR. "In past work, his lab identified compounds that mask the host from insects, as well as compounds that serve as lures. The lab's new research has given us compounds that serve as repellents, making possible safe alternatives to DEET for a variety of applications including control of mosquitoes, flies, and possibly lice, bed bugs, ants, cockroaches, grain pests and agricultural pests."

When commercialized, the findings by Ray's team could have wide applications.

"Ir40a and its related proteins are conserved not only in flies and mosquitoes, but also in many other insects that are human and plant pests," Ray explained. "Our findings could lead to a new generation of cheap, affordable repellents that could protect humans, animals and, in the future, our crops as well."

He was joined in the study by UCR's Pinky Kain (co-first author who found the receptor), former graduate student Sean Michael Boyle (co-first author who identified the substitutes), Sana Khalid Tharadra, Tom Guda, Christine Pham, and Anupama Dahanukar.

The three natural compounds, identified by Ray's group, that mimic DEET are methyl N,N-dimethyl anthranilate, ethyl anthranilate and butyl anthranilate. (More than a hundred compounds still await testing in Ray's lab.)

The research was partially supported by the National Institutes of Health's National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (grants R56AI099778 and R01AI087785) and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (grant R21NS074332) and internal funding from UCR.

Second study

In a separate study published Oct. 1 in the journal e-Life, Ray's group discusses a computational method, developed by Boyle, for screening thousands of chemicals and predicting which odorants -- or odor molecules -- will interact with specific odorant receptors. This research, too, may lead to the development of more effective insect repellents.

Specifically, the researchers used their computational approach to study the interactions between 24 odorant receptors in Drosophila antennae and 109 odorants. They then identified common structural features in the odorants and used this information to screen more than 240,000 different odorant-like volatile compounds. For each receptor, they came up with 500 new odorants that were predicted to interact most strongly with it. They then tested their predictions for some receptors on living flies and found that approximately 71 percent of the predicted compounds activated or inhibited the receptors.

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Recruiting E. coli to combat hard-to-treat bacterial infections

Oct. 2, 2013 — The notorious bacteria E. coli is best known for making people sick, but scientists have reprogrammed the microbe -- which also comes in harmless varieties -- to make it seek out and fight other disease-causing pathogens. The researchers' report appears in the journal ACS Synthetic Biology and describes development of this new type of E. coli that can even kill off slimy groups of bacteria called biofilms that are responsible for many hard-to-treat infections, such as those that take hold in the lungs, the bladder and on implanted medical devices.

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Matthew Wook Chang and colleagues explain that biofilm infections are difficult to treat because the bacteria hide away under a protective barrier of sugars, DNA and proteins. That shield makes them very resistant to conventional therapies. In addition, overuse of antibiotics in medicine and agriculture also have made some bacteria, such as MRSA, shrug off most known treatments, making at least 2 million Americans sick every year. This growing public health threat has motivated scientists to look for new antibiotics and alternative treatments to beat infections. In the past, researchers made bacteria that fight off other microbes, but they had limitations. Chang's team addressed those limitations by making a new kind of bacterial "gun-for-hire" that can sense an infection, swim toward it and kill off the disease-causing microbes.

They reprogrammed E. coli to sense Pseudomonas aeruginosa -- a bacteria that can form biofilms and causes hospital-acquired infections in the lungs and the gut. The new E. coli then swims directly toward P. aeruginosa and launches an attack with an antimicrobial peptide and an enzyme that breaks down biofilms. Though the researchers successfully tested their engineered microbe on P. aeruginosa, they say that their engineering strategy could be used to combat other pathogens as well.

The authors acknowledge funding from the National Medical Research Council of Singapore and the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency.

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Tears for fears: Juvenile mice secrete a protective pheromone in their tears, blocking adult mating

Oct. 2, 2013 — Nocturnal animals need their noses to stay alive. Mice, among others, depend on their impressive olfactory powers to sniff out food or avoid danger in the dark.

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Hard-wired to flee a predator or fight a mating rival in response to a whiff of urine, mice use a streamlined system that sends the sensory cue to neural centers in the brain that need only a few synapses to rapidly initiate the instinctive behavior. By comparison, the visual system on which humans rely to sense a threat must process many more variables, detecting the edges and colors and contrast of that looming tiger they see, rather than sniffing the aroma of a cat -- pungent only to animals -- before scuttling away.

In mice, social behaviors are also driven by these chemical signals, called pheromones. Scientists have observed differences in how mice interact with adult, juvenile or newborn mice, but they have not known which sensory cues allow mice to discriminate by age.

While looking for novel pheromones that can control different instinctive mouse behaviors, researchers, led by Stephen Liberles, HMS associate professor of cell biology, have discovered a pheromone found only in the tears of young mice. Their experiments showed that this molecule, an exocrine-gland peptide named ESP22, protects prepubescent mice from mating activity by adult male mice. The research, reported October 2 in Nature, provides the first step toward a detailed understanding of how a sensory system can regulate social behavior.

"By identifying specific pheromones and the receptors they activate, you have a handle on the neural circuits that control these instinctive behaviors," Liberles said. "The idea is to generate a toolbox of different pheromones that control different behaviors. Then you can dissect how the olfactory system selectively channels these inputs to enact appropriate behavioral responses."

The researchers examined the genomes of mice to identify genes that encode pheromones. They studied whether pheromone genes were turned on in male and female mice of different ages and physiological states. In adult mice, sex pheromones made by males influence sexual behavior in adult females and aggression in males, but less is known about pheromones in younger mice.

The gene expression screen found Esp22 not in newborn mice but in the tears of juvenile mice. Juvenile pheromones had not been reported before, and much less attention has been focused on tears compared to urine, which is much easier to collect.

"This framed how we thought about what ESP22 might be doing," Liberles said.

To better understand the response pathway this molecule activated, the scientists traced it to sensory neurons in the vomeronasal organ (VNO), an olfactory structure that humans lack. Adult mice that have signaling deficits in this organ displayed increased sexual behavior toward the juvenile mice, the scientists observed.

The scientists also saw adult mice exhibit the same behavior toward two strains of juvenile mice that don't produce ESP22. But when ESP22 was painted onto these juvenile mice, there was a substantial reduction in sexual behavior by the adult males, suggesting that ESP22 is a protective pheromone.

Further tracking showed that ESP22 activates neurons in the limbic system, an area in the brain controlling instinctive drives: sexual behavior, aggression and self-defense. Much more remains in the dark, Liberles said.

"We'd love to know what those neurons are, how they compare to other neurons in the limbic system, and how they might mediate responses to other types of pheromones and predator odors," he said. "We would also like to find the receptor that detects this cue."

Mice are important models for understanding human behavior -- the ultimate goal of this research program -- but there are important differences. Humans don't have a juvenile pheromone like ESP22. They don't have an organ like the VNO. They also don't recognize predator odors the way a mouse would. But humans do exhibit fear, aggression and sexual behavior.

"Many of the behaviors are similar," Liberles said. "We use the mouse as a model for understanding human behavior. This work provides a way to study mechanisms underlying behavior."

Lisa Stowers, an associate professor of molecular and cellular neuroscience at the Scripps Research Institute in San Diego, called the study "convincing and complete." While she leads a lab that investigates similar questions in the field, she was not involved in the research.

"This is a very important molecule to study brain circuitry," she said. "We don't have the special olfactory system that mice have and we don't have the odors that trigger behavior, but they trigger the same place in the brain, across evolution."

Stowers was cautious in drawing conclusions about mice in the wild versus mice in laboratory cages, much less leaping across species. What does a male mouse do when it is attracted to a female and smells a cat at the same time, for example?

"By having thesecues we can begin to find the neurons they activate and ask what happens in this balancing act between mating and fear," she said. "We can ask how these behaviors are modulated and, in dysfunction, how they are not modulated."

ESP22 and other molecules Liberles has found provide powerful tools to understand how innate behaviors are produced in the brain, she said.

"Thirty percent of humans take drugs to modulate stress and anxiety and aggression," Stowers said. Despite how important these behaviors are, "we have no idea how they are produced in the brain by any animal -- not worms, not flies, not mice and not humans. This is a first step, opening up whole new ways to study them."

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Fear of predators drives honey bees away from good food sources

Such fear drives bees to avoid food sources closely associated with predators and, interestingly, makes colonies of bees less risk-tolerant than individual bees, according to a study published in this week's issue of the open-access journal PLOS ONE.

"This strategy of colonies collectively exhibiting significantly more caution than the riskier individual foragers may help honey bees exploit all of the available food sources, with some intrepid foragers visiting more dangerous food while the colony judiciously decides how to best allocate its foraging," says James Nieh, a professor of biology at UC San Diego.

Nieh worked with scientists at Yunnan Agricultural University in China to study the impact on foraging Asian honey bees of the monstrous-looking Asian Giant hornet, Vespa tropica, and a smaller hornet species known as Vespa velutina, which has invaded Europe and now poses a threat to European honey bees.

"The Asian Giant hornets are dangerous, heavily armored predators," says Ken Tan, the first author of the paper, who also works at the Chinese Academy of Science's Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden. "Bee colonies respond by forming balls of defending bees, encasing the hornet and, in some cases, cooking it to death with heat generated by the bees."

The researchers found that bees treated the bigger hornet species, which is four times more massive than the smaller species, as more dangerous. In a series of experiments, they presented bees with different combinations of safe and dangerous feeders -- depending on their association with the larger or smaller hornets -- containing varying concentrations of sucrose.

"Bees avoided the dangerous feeders and preferred feeders that provided sweeter nectar," says Nieh. "However, predators are clever and can focus on sweeter food, ones which bees prefer. So we also tested how bees would respond when sweeter food was also more dangerous. What we found was that the individual bees were more risk-tolerant. They avoided the giant hornet at the best food, but continued to visit the lower quality food with the smaller hornet."

Other scientists involved in the research were Zongwen Hu, Weiwen Chen, Zhengwei Wang and Yuchong Wang, all of the Eastern Bee Research Institute of Yunnan Agricultural University.

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LED Lighting Cree puts most light into smallest lighting LED

2013/10/02

09oct13CreeXQEpencil 400 Cree has stretched the output of its 1.6×1.6mm XQ LED package.

Called XQ-E, the device gets the 1mm die from its XP-E2 LED, and a domed XQ package with a 110° output.

“Optically it is actually the same as XP-E2,” Cree marketing manager Paul Scheidt told Electronics Weekly. “It is a much smaller building block to mix for colour-change because it has much better lumen density. We are going to make white and RGB all available at the same time.”

Characterised at 85°C, whites are available from 2,700 to 6,200K, with minimum CRI options of 70 and 80.

Peak planned white output is 287 lm at 3W, 85°C.

Thermal resistance is down, to 7°C/W from 9°C/W of the XP-E, said Scheidt.

Applications are expected in portable, indoor directional, architectural and vehicle lighting.

White samples are available now, and colour LED samples will be available in late October.

09oct13CreeXQ-Ered 400 09oct13CreeXQ-Eblue 400 09oct13CreeXQ-Egreen 400 09oct13CreeXQ-Ewhite 400 09oct13CreeXQEComp 400

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2013-10-02

Caribou may be indirectly affected by sea-ice loss in the Arctic

Oct. 1, 2013 — Melting sea ice in the Arctic may be leading, indirectly, to fewer caribou calf births and higher calf mortality in Greenland, according to scientists at Penn State University. Eric Post, a Penn State University professor of biology, and Jeffrey Kerby, a Penn State graduate student, have linked the melting of Arctic sea ice with changes in the timing of plant growth on land, which in turn is associated with lower production of calves by caribou in the area.

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The results of the study will be published in the journal Nature Communications on 1 October 2013.

Post began his observations on the relationship between the timing of caribou calving and the start of the plant-growing season in Greenland 20 years ago. "I initially was interested simply in determining how closely timed the calving season was to the onset of vegetation green-up," Post explained, "without a thought as to how this relationship might be affected by climate change." Post added that, as his observations have continued, the data have revealed an increasingly earlier start to the plant growing season, a change that has not been matched by correspondingly earlier calving by caribou in the area. "Until this study," Post said, "identifying the environmental driver of this change has been the biggest challenge, one that we're getting a better understanding of now that we have more years of data." The ongoing decline in sea ice now has been associated with increases in local temperatures inland in many parts of the Arctic. "We therefore hypothesized that sea-ice decline was involved in local warming and the associated advancement of the growing season for plants at the study site, and so we set out to test that hypothesis," Post said.

Kerby added that archeological evidence suggests that caribou have used this area as a calving site for over 3,000 years. In late May to early June, caribou typically arrive from their west-to-east migratory journey in search of young plants to eat around the time caribou give birth. "Since plants are emerging earlier in the year, they tend to be older and past their peak nutritional value by the time the hungry caribou arrive to eat them," Kerby said. "The animals show up expecting a food bonanza, but they find that the cafeteria already has closed." The team members explained that, while plants respond to warmer temperatures and other changes in climate simply by adjusting the timing of their growth, caribou -- whose reproductive cycles are timed by seasonal changes in daylight length, rather than by temperature -- continue to give birth at nearly the same time during the spring when they usually do. "This scenario is what we call a trophic mismatch -- a disconnect between the timing of when plants are most nutritious and the timing of when animals are most dependent on them for nutrition," Kerby said.

In addition to analyzing their own data, Post and Kerby also used information from a 1970s study of caribou calving and calf survival at the same site by Danish biologists Henning Thing and Bjarne Clausen. "This comparison allowed us to look for signs of trophic mismatch in the same caribou population over 30 years ago," Post said. He explained that he and Kerby used the statistically robust relationship between sea ice and the timing of plant growth to "hindcast" trophic mismatch to 1979, which they then compared to their more-recent findings. "We found an interesting contrast to the current state of caribou calving in relation to spring green-up," Post said. "Rather than a trophic mismatch, the observations by Thing and Clausen suggest a high state of trophic match associated with later onset of the plant growing season. As a result, the data from the late 1970s indicate very high calf production in this population at that time."

Post added that he and his team intend to study other ecological communities living near sea ice in future research. "Sea ice is part of a broader climate system that clearly has important effects on both plants and animals. Exactly how sea-ice decline might affect species interactions in this and other types of food webs on land in the Arctic is a question that deserves greater attention," Post said.

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Breakthrough in photonics could allow for faster and faster electronics

The research team, led by CU-Boulder researcher Milos Popovic, an assistant professor of electrical, computer and energy engineering, developed a new technique that allows microprocessors to use light, instead of electrical wires, to communicate with transistors on a single chip, a system that could lead to extremely energy-efficient computing and a continued skyrocketing of computing speed into the future.

Popovic and his colleagues created two different optical modulators -- structures that detect electrical signals and translate them into optical waves -- that can be fabricated within the same processes already used in industry to create today's state-of-the-art electronic microprocessors. The modulators are described in a recent issue of the journal Optics Letters.

First laid out in 1965, Moore's Law predicted that the size of the transistors used in microprocessors could be shrunk by half about every two years for the same production cost, allowing twice as many transistors to be placed on the same-sized silicon chip. The net effect would be a doubling of computing speed every couple of years.

The projection has held true until relatively recently. While transistors continue to get smaller, halving their size today no longer leads to a doubling of computing speed. That's because the limiting factor in microelectronics is now the power that's needed to keep the microprocessors running. The vast amount of electricity required to flip on and off tiny, densely packed transistors causes excessive heat buildup.

"The transistors will keep shrinking and they'll be able to continue giving you more and more computing performance," Popovic said. "But in order to be able to actually take advantage of that you need to enable energy-efficient communication links."

Microelectronics also are limited by the fact that placing electrical wires that carry data too closely together can result in "cross talk" between the wires.

In the last half-dozen years, microprocessor manufacturers, such as Intel, have been able to continue increasing computing speed by packing more than one microprocessor into a single chip to create multiple "cores." But that technique is limited by the amount of communication that then becomes necessary between the microprocessors, which also requires hefty electricity consumption.

Using light waves instead of electrical wires for microprocessor communication functions could eliminate the limitations now faced by conventional microprocessors and extend Moore's Law into the future, Popovic said.

Optical communication circuits, known as photonics, have two main advantages over communication that relies on conventional wires: Using light has the potential to be brutally energy efficient, and a single fiber-optic strand can carry a thousand different wavelengths of light at the same time, allowing for multiple communications to be carried simultaneously in a small space and eliminating cross talk.

Optical communication is already the foundation of the Internet and the majority of phone lines. But to make optical communication an economically viable option for microprocessors, the photonics technology has to be fabricated in the same foundries that are being used to create the microprocessors. Photonics have to be integrated side-by-side with the electronics in order to get buy-in from the microprocessor industry, Popovic said.

"In order to convince the semiconductor industry to incorporate photonics into microelectronics you need to make it so that the billions of dollars of existing infrastructure does not need to be wiped out and redone," Popovic said.

Last year, Popovic collaborated with scientists at MIT to show, for the first time, that such integration is possible. "We are building photonics inside the exact same process that they build microelectronics in," Popovic said. "We use this fabrication process and instead of making just electrical circuits, we make photonics next to the electrical circuits so they can talk to each other."

In two papers published last month in Optics Letters with CU-Boulder postdoctoral researcher Jeffrey Shainline as lead author, the research team refined their original photonic-electronic chip further, detailing how the crucial optical modulator, which encodes data on streams of light, could be improved to become more energy efficient. That optical modulator is compatible with a manufacturing process -- known as Silicon-on-Insulator Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor, or SOI CMOS -- used to create state-of-the-art multicore microprocessors such as the IBM Power7 and Cell, which is used in the Sony PlayStation 3.

The researchers also detailed a second type of optical modulator that could be used in a different chip-manufacturing process, called bulk CMOS, which is used to make memory chips and the majority of the world's high-end microprocessors.

Vladimir Stojanovic, who leads one of the MIT teams collaborating on the project and who is the lead principal investigator for the overall research program, said the group's work on optical modulators is a significant step forward.

"On top of the energy-efficiency and bandwidth-density advantages of silicon-photonics over electrical wires, photonics integrated into CMOS processes with no process changes provides enormous cost-benefits and advantage over traditional photonic systems," Stojanovic said.

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2013-10-01

Finding the place where the brain creates illusory shapes and surfaces

Both of these logos take advantage of a common perceptual illusion where the brain, when viewing a fragmented background, frequently sees shapes and surfaces that don't really exist.

"It's hallucinating without taking drugs," said Alexander Maier, assistant professor of psychology at Vanderbilt University, who headed a team of neuroscientists who has pinpointed the area of the brain that is responsible for these "illusory contours."

In the Sept. 30 online Early Edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Maier's team reported that they have discovered groups of neurons in a region of the visual cortex called V4 that fire when an individual is viewing a pattern that produces such an illusion and remain quiescent when viewing an almost identical pattern that doesn't.

Studies have shown that a diverse range of species, including monkeys, cats, owls, goldfish and even honeybees perceive these illusory contours. This has led scientists to propose that they are the byproduct of methods that the brain has evolved to spot predators or prey hiding in the bushes, a capability with considerable survival value.

Although scientists discovered illusory contours more than a century ago, it is only in the last 30 years that they have begun studying them because they reveal the internal mechanisms that the brain uses to interpret sensory input.

In mammals, visual stimuli is processed in the back of the brain in an area called the visual cortex. Efforts to map tthis area have found that it is made up of five different regions at the back of brain (labeled V1 to V5.)

The primary visual cortex, V1, takes the stimuli coming from the eyes and sorts it by a variety of basic properties, including orientation, color and spatial variation. It also splits the information into two pathways, called the dorsal and ventral streams.

From V1, both streams are routed to the second major area of the visual cortex. V2 performs many of the same functions as V1 but adds some more complex processing, such as recognizing the disparities in the signals coming from the two eyes that produce binocular vision.

From V2, one pathway, sometimes called the "Where Pathway," goes to V5 and is associated with object location and motion detection. The other pathway, sometimes called the "What Pathway," goes to V4 and is associated with object representation and form recognition.

"Studies have shown that V4 is involved in both object recognition and visual attention, so we thought it might also be involved with illusory contours," said Michele Cox, the Vanderbilt graduate student who is first author on the study.

First, the researchers searched for the neurons in V4 that were associated with different locations in the retinas of macaque monkeys. Once these maps were complete, they rewarded the monkeys for staring at a screen containing an example of an illusory contour called a Kanizsa square. This consists of four "Pac-Man" figures with their "mouths" oriented to form the corners of a square. When black Pac-Men are placed on a white background, the brain creates a bright white square connecting them.

While the monkeys were looking at the Kanizsa square, the researchers discovered that the neurons that represented the area in the middle of the Pac-Men, the area covered by the illusory square, began firing. However, when the monkeys viewed the same four Pac-Men with their mouths facing outward -- an orientation that doesn't produce the illusion -- these central neurons remained silent.

"Basically, the brain is acting like a detective," said Maier. "It is responding to cues in the environment and making its best guesses about how they fit together. In the case of these illusions, however, it comes to an incorrect conclusion."

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